Has Trustlessness Erased Trust? - A Reconfiguration of Verification | HashHub Research

This article is reprinted with permission from HashHub Research. Author: Beranda Chilboy Date of writing: July 21, 2026

Series "Web3 You Can No Longer Ask" Episode 8

Table of Contents

1. Confession
2. The Work That Trust Undertakes
3. Contracts Without Guarantors
4. The Three Faces of Trust
5. The Third Time of The DAO - From the Perspective of Trust
6. Conclusion - Trust Does Not Disappear; It Just Changes Its Place
7. References

Confession {#sec-confession}

The term "trustless" has a somewhat insincere ring to it.

Trustless. No need for trust. In the world of blockchain, this word has been repeatedly used as one of several principles. You do not need to trust banks. You do not need to trust exchanges. You do not need to trust your counterpart. You do not even need to trust the government. A system is created by code that requires no trust from anyone.

There was a moment when I thought it sounded genuinely good. Trust is troublesome. You have to investigate the other party. Read contracts. Wait for performance. Consider the procedures when performance is not met. If code could handle all these hassles at once, it wouldn’t be bad. It’s very smart.

However, when I try to write, I get stuck.

I get stuck here every time. At the same place, every time.

This morning, I handed a 1000 yen bill at a convenience store. The clerk did not check the watermark on the 1000 yen bill. I withdrew cash from an ATM. I didn’t consider the possibility that the balance displayed on the screen was fabricated. I received a message on the company’s Slack. I had no doubt that the other party was the real person. I got into an elevator. I didn’t think that the wire might break today.

How many trusts was I operating on today? I don’t even feel like counting.

Despite being troublesome, trust cannot be erased. If it were erased, I would be unable to move from morning to night. I would spend the day verifying watermarks, reconciling balances, verifying identities, and measuring wire tension. The day would end spent on confirming the minimum actions needed to live.

Trust is not used because we tolerate the hassle. Daily life is built on a grand omission of not verifying.

The term "trustless" seems to suggest that this omission can be turned upside down by code. It should be possible to turn it upside down. If everything is verifiable, trust becomes unnecessary. In theory, that’s true.

However, my morning does not operate that way.

I believe the reason the term "trustless" does not resonate sincerely is due to this disconnect. Although it claims to be able to turn it upside down, there are no traces of it being turned upside down in daily life. Something is missing. What is actually happening inside trustlessness, and what is not happening? Or perhaps what is missing is not on the side of trustlessness but on my side. I get stuck there every time I try to write.

The Work That Trust Undertakes {#sec-work-of-trust}

Let me clarify first.

What trustlessness has truly achieved is undoubtedly something.

It has created a mechanism to verify balances without relying on a single authority. It has created a pathway to facilitate remittances without the permission of specific companies or nations. It has created the technical possibility to hold one’s own assets. Achieving these simultaneously without depending on a single company or nation was impossible in traditional digital finance. If a central server or operator stops, users cannot verify their balances or move their assets. If a bank freezes an account, assets cannot be moved. If a nation imposes capital controls, remittances stop.

Trustlessness has indeed eliminated these single points of failure. This should be correctly recognized as an achievement. Even if another weakness arises afterward, the fact that it has eliminated them does not disappear.

What we are dealing with here is not that achievement. It is about what ultimately did not disappear around what has been eliminated.

In the first place, those that claim to be "-less" have generally failed to permanently eliminate something. Despite being cashless, there are still situations that require cash. Despite being paperless, there are documents that one wants to issue on paper. It is not that they have disappeared; rather, the frequency of necessity has decreased. "-less" is closer to an observation of changes in frequency rather than a declaration of elimination. I felt the same sensation while writing about trustlessness.

What work has trust been doing?

In the first episode of this series, I wrote that currency is a shared illusion. As Yuval Noah Harari pointed out in "Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind," humans are the only animals capable of sharing fictions, and all large-scale cooperation is built upon that ability. Nations, corporations, currencies, laws, and joint-stock companies—all of these exist based on shared fictions. Trust is the glue that supports that fiction.

In the second episode on Ethereum, I traced the history of places where trust is placed—faces, gods, violence, ledgers, laws, servers. Near the end, I asked, "Can we place shared illusions outside of nations and corporations?" Trustlessness is an experiment that answered that question with "code."

In Japanese, there are two closely related but distinct words: "credit" and "trust." Credit estimates the other party's ability to perform in a calculative manner. Trust accepts the goodwill of the other party outside of calculation. Banks operate on the axis of credit, while families operate on the axis of trust. The second episode dealt with the place of credit. This article deals with trust, which exists one layer outside of that.

Trust performs several functions. It allows transactions to proceed without verifying the other party each time. It enables the inheritance of memory without reconciling the past every time. It allows norms to be operated without writing down rules each time. The accumulation of these "things you don’t have to do every time" creates the speed of daily life.

In other words, what trust substitutes for is verification. Trust is the understanding that verification does not need to be done every time. Rather than accepting the goodwill of the other party, it seems more accurate to say that it saves the hassle of continuously verifying the other party. In this article, I will treat credit as proceeding after verification, while trust proceeds by omitting verification.

Moreover, this omission of hassle has a nature that cannot stand alone. For trust to function, a supporting foundation is required. Community, legal systems, reputation, memory, and the state monopolizing violence. If any of these weaken, trust collapses immediately. Trust is always built on something.

Trustlessness, at least in principle, is a mechanism that refuses to ride on that "something." It does not rely on community, legal systems, reputation, memory, or the state. It replaces everything with code. However, this may just return to the logic of transaction costs. If you do not use trust, you will verify every time. Who will perform that verification?

In the previous episode, Episode 7 on the DAO, I posited the assumption that "humans cannot endure continuing to decide for themselves." This time, I will address the adjacent assumption directly.

The assumption is that humans cannot endure continuing to verify.

Externalizing decision-making is what organizations do, while externalizing verification is what trust does. Both distribute tasks that humans cannot endure carrying on their own to separate devices.

Trustlessness is an attempt to reallocate the "verification" that was externalized to trust back to code. However, who will actually operate the reallocated verification? This becomes the main topic of this article.

Contracts Without Guarantors {#sec-guarantor}

The central invention that expanded trustlessness from remittances to the realm of contracts was the smart contract.

A contract that is automatically performed when conditions are met. There is no need to trust the other party, hire a lawyer to read the contract, or go to court to demand performance. Conditions are written in code, and performance occurs the moment the conditions are met.

This seems to fundamentally change the landscape of contracts.

Contracts can be established with just the agreement of the two parties. However, to prepare for cases where performance is not met, a third party outside the two parties is needed. Someone who will perform instead if the other party does not fulfill their obligations, or someone who will enforce performance. In many cases, that has been a guarantor, collateral, and ultimately a court backed by the coercive power of the state. Contracts have operated not as an agreement between two parties, but as a triangle of two parties + guarantor.

Smart contracts seem to eliminate the apex of this triangle, that is, the position of the guarantor. Contracts are automatically performed. No guarantor is needed. They can be established with just the two parties.

Figure 1. The Triangle of Contracts and Its Backside. Created by the author.

Contracts without guarantors.

This was an attempt to fundamentally rewrite the institution of contracts. At least, it seemed so.

However, as I write, I can see that several things are happening behind the expression of contracts without guarantors.

When we say that code "executes automatically," it does not mean that the code itself is physically moving. The code runs on a collection of nodes—computers that participate in the network and keep the code running. There are humans who operate the nodes, a network that connects them, and a design of economic incentives that supports it. If any of these elements fail, execution stops or breaks.

When we say the code executes, it is not the code itself that is actually executing. It is the countless anonymous individuals who keep the code running.

Moreover, what the code executes and how it executes it is predetermined by the humans who wrote the code. If the writer makes a mistake, the execution results will be incorrect. If a vulnerability is discovered after writing, someone else may exploit an unexpected loophole in the code before it is executed. If the writer has the authority to rewrite the code later, the rules of execution itself may change post-factum.

The humans who wrote the code, those who keep it running, and those who have the authority to rewrite it—all of these appear to be outside the contract, but in reality, they stand as third parties that continuously support the execution of the contract.

The guarantors have not disappeared. Countless decentralized guarantors, having lost their names, continue to support execution anonymously.

Furthermore, multiple devices are stacked to establish, observe, and maintain execution. Oracles that carry external information. Block explorers that visualize results. Audit firms that inspect the code. Hardware wallet manufacturers that safeguard keys. Node operators that run the network. Core developers that update the code. Governance participants that choose changes. Around contracts that claim to have no guarantors, nameless actors with different roles have gathered. It is dizzying to see so many foreign terms lined up.

Figure 1. The Triangle of Contracts and Its Backside—The Invisible Guarantors. Created by the author (reposted).

What does it look like when viewed from outside the contract?

Not only are there no guarantors. There are no referees either. A match requires referees to enforce the rules. However, in a trustless world, there are no official referees. Instead, everyone monitors everyone else. Block explorers serve as tools for this surveillance. If someone commits a foul during the match, there is no one to blow the whistle officially. The moment a foul becomes apparent, the entire crowd either raises their voice or falls silent. This functions as a substitute for a referee.

There are no landlords either. Apartments require landlords and management companies. Maintenance of facilities, cleaning of common areas, mediation of disputes among residents—these cannot be fully handled by the residents themselves, so the landlord takes on these responsibilities. In a trustless world, there is no landlord. The common areas of the blockchain—the protocol itself, core implementation, development funds, emergency responses—are supported by some residents as volunteers. If the volunteers leave, the common areas will deteriorate. Someone must always step up in their place.

Contracts without guarantors, matches without referees, apartments without landlords. When we line up the "erasure" achieved by trustlessness from the three aspects of contracts, competitions, and communal living, we can see that the same thing is happening repeatedly. Where specific third parties with names have been erased, countless nameless third parties have stepped in.

It is a clever reconfiguration. However, it does not mean that third parties have been erased. It is a strange calculation that breaks down the work that third parties used to do into finer parts and places them in different locations—resulting in an increase in stakeholders.

Previously, in the second installment of this series, I described Ethereum as a "temple without priests." In a temple that should have no priests, there are clearly defined priests such as the Foundation, core developers, early large holders, and the upper pool of Validators. The same structure is repeated on the side of contracts, competitions, and housing.

Claude Lévi-Strauss referred to the practice of rearranging existing materials at hand as bricolage in "The Savage Mind." Trustlessness is the same; it has not erased trust but has merely rearranged the bearers of trust that existed before under different names and configurations. All materials are known, and only the combinations are new.

The Three Faces of Trust

In the second installment of this series, I wrote that the place of trust has shifted over time. From faces to gods, from gods to violence, from violence to ledgers, from ledgers to laws, and from laws to servers. Trustlessness was an attempt to add another place at the end of this series—from servers to code.

However, when rearranged, this series does not merely represent a list of replacements. Even when the era of gods arrives, faces remain. Even when the era of violence arrives, gods remain. Even when the era of laws arrives, ledgers continue to be written. Even when the era of servers arrives, laws continue to be drafted. Trust has not changed its place but has increased it. New points are placed in the most prominent positions, while old points continue to move beneath them. The same is true for code. Cryptocurrency exchanges sit above banks, and code sits above exchanges. Everything moves simultaneously.

Figure 2. The Evolution of the Place of Trust. Created by the author (reposted from the second installment).

When arranged by time, it appears sequential (Figure 2). However, when viewed by weight, it is stacked like this (Figure 3).

Figure 3. The Layering of the Place of Trust—Old Layers Still Support Below. Created by the author.

Up to this point, we have discussed trust. On the side of trust, something slightly different is happening.

Max Weber divided the grounds on which domination is accepted as legitimate into three ideal types: traditional domination, charismatic domination, and legal domination. In the language of this article, these are three forms of trust: tradition, personality, and rules. Traditional domination relies on trust in customs that have been passed down through generations. Charismatic domination relies on trust in the extraordinary qualities of the ruler. Legal domination relies on trust in the rules themselves.

What trustlessness presents seems to be a fourth form of trust that exists outside these three types: trust in the code itself. It is trust in the behavior of a machine that is neither based on personality, tradition, nor the wording of rules. The famous slogan "Code is Law" declared this fourth form of trust as a replacement for the existing three types.

Humanity does not possess many thoughts that can be expressed in a single line. To say one does not trust people. The strength of this slogan lies in its conciseness.

However, when we break down the trust in the code that is actually in operation, Weber's three types emerge as they are.

Traditional trust. Bitcoin has a consensus mechanism called Nakamoto Consensus. The mechanism itself is code, but it is accepted as legitimate due to the historical weight of having operated this way since 2009. From the Genesis Block to today, it has continued to operate without breaking the continuity of the ledger while making changes. This continuity itself has become a tradition that supports trust in the mechanism.

Charismatic trust. Ethereum has a proper noun: Vitalik Buterin. The phrase "Vitalik said so" often sways the community's judgment. Vitalik's individual technical excellence, continuous contributions from the beginning, and ideological influence gather trust. Bitcoin also has the legend of Satoshi Nakamoto, who does not appear. Although there is no physical personality, charisma continues to operate on the legendary side.

Legal trust. There is a mechanism called Ethereum Improvement Proposal (EIP). Proposals for protocol changes are submitted as documents and discussed in public. Those that are adopted are implemented. Procedures are established. Because they follow the procedures, changes are accepted as legitimate. Bitcoin Improvement Proposal (BIP) has the same structure. Trust in the procedures themselves enables changes.

All three operate around the code. There are no participants who purely trust the code alone. They trust history, trust charisma, trust procedures, and as a result of their intertwining, they trust the code.

Weber's important observation was that these three types do not establish real domination on their own. Pure legal domination does not exist. Courts and bureaucracies function closely intertwined with traditional prestige, the charisma of leaders, and trust in social norms.

The same can be said for code. Pure code domination does not exist. Code functions intertwined with the three types of trust that surround it. What trustlessness intended to establish as the fourth type—"trust in the code itself"—was, in fact, operating as a mixture of the existing three types.

Here, a malicious doubt arises. If it means not taking responsibility for verification oneself and placing the verification apparatus that supports that omission elsewhere, then the world has long been operating in a trustless manner. Days pass without checking watermarks, without doubting balances, believing the counterpart to be genuine. Humanity has continued to delegate the work of verification to someone else or to some apparatus, from faces to gods, and from gods to laws. What Web3 has invented is not verification itself, but the act of relocating that verification to code and networks. The prototype of trustlessness is ubiquitous around the world.

If that is the case, the greatest achievement of Web3 as a philosophy may be to give a new name, "trustlessness," to the omissions that have existed there for a long time. There is indeed a technical achievement in eliminating single points of failure. However, what has moved many people to this point is not just technology, but the power of names. When names change, familiar things can appear revolutionary. Old practices that are commonplace around the world can become cutting-edge banners. The finesse of this is remarkable. It is precisely because it is remarkable that it feels a bit suspicious.

A mechanism created to not trust people was made by trusting people.

What was happening within trustlessness seems to be encapsulated in this one sentence. Code was written to eliminate trust in personality. However, to write code, trust in the person who wrote it is required. To run the code, trust in the person who operates it is necessary. To maintain the code, trust in the person who maintains it is needed. The mechanism born out of the desire not to trust people barely operates on the trust of countless anonymous individuals.

The Third Time of The DAO------From the Side of Trust

In this series, we have dealt with The DAO incident multiple times. In the second installment, we viewed it as an event where Ethereum called upon priests at a moment of crisis. In the seventh installment, we saw it as an event where the decision-making body of the DAO became unclear. This time, we will look at the same incident from the side of trust.

Until just before the incident, what was driving Ethereum was trust in the code. The premise that it operates as written gathered participants. However, when the incident occurred, the participants chose to overwrite their trust in the code with trust in the community's judgment.

The vote that pushed that judgment was terribly small. The ETH used for the expression of will was less than one-twentieth of the total. Even so, that thin expression of will tilted the entire Ethereum towards prioritizing human judgment over code. Anyone could verify it. Yet, that does not mean everyone verified it. Verifiability did not create the people who would verify.

At this time, the chosen "community norm" was not written down. It was not explicitly stated anywhere. It was only after the choice that it became clear that such a norm existed.

This was a scene reminiscent of what Ludwig Wittgenstein demonstrated in his later work—that the meaning of rules is only determined in the practice outside the text of the rules. In the seventh installment, silence appeared as a void in decision-making. This time, the same silence appears as a void in verification.

Last time, we saw attempts to eliminate responsibility from organizations. Responsibility dissipated. This time, the discussion of trust occurs at a deeper level. Responsibility is a job that can point to bearers within an organization. Trust is broader. It is a web-like job spread across the entirety of daily life.

Trustlessness tested whether that web could be replaced by code. What remained after the attempt was a landscape where the web had been rearranged. The threads have not disappeared; only the way they are woven has changed.

I too am within this web. As I write, I realize this.

The reason I hear a slightly insincere sound in the word "trustlessness" is that this is not someone else's issue. In various situations of daily life, I too have moments where I find trust troublesome. I do not want to verify the counterpart every time. I do not want to reread documents every time. I do not want to remember promises every time. There have been times when I wished for a mechanism that would shoulder this inconvenience. The reason I am drawn to trustlessness is actually rooted in this everyday inconvenience.

Trustlessness is not a dream held only by a few idealists within the industry. The seeds of that dream exist within myself as well. It is not the feeling of not wanting to trust people, but the feeling that trusting people is troublesome. That feeling is much more common and much more entrenched.

Fyodor Dostoevsky's "Notes from Underground" begins with the following famous monologue:
I am ill... A man of twisted nature. A man who does not like people. Apparently, I seem to be suffering from my liver. However, I do not understand my illness at all, nor do I probably know what is wrong with me. I have never seen a doctor, nor have I ever been to one. I think highly of medicine and doctors... Moreover, I am incredibly superstitious. Well, at least I am superstitious enough to believe that medicine is a fine thing (I must have received enough education to mock superstitions, but I am still superstitious). No, I will never go to a doctor again. I absolutely refuse.

------Dostoevsky, "Notes from Underground" (translated by Haruko Yasuoka, Kobunsha Classics New Translation)

A man who cannot trust anyone continues to write about himself as he approaches forty from the underground. Unable to trust others, disengaged from the world, he remains closed off within himself, continuing to write towards the world. He has been read as a pathological character. However, while reading, something deep within the chest responds involuntarily in a certain number of readers. That is why this book has been read for over 160 years.

Recognizing the abnormality but not curing it. Holding onto the refusal to cure it as a form of malice.

As I write, I feel a familiar dull sensation around my liver. I too am not trying to cure the inconvenience. With each increase in the number of facilities that allow me to avoid facing people, I find myself feeling a little relieved. While realizing this, I do not intend to seek treatment. Just as the man from the underground left his illness unattended out of malice, I too do not want to give up the convenience of avoiding facing people. By continuing to choose that convenience, I preserve the part of myself that finds people troublesome.

The man from the underground is portrayed as an extreme character. Unable to maintain daily life, lacking social interaction, failing in love, obsessively ruminating on his own pettiness. However, this extremity is not far from the ordinary. The ordinary movements of the heart in daily life—finding others troublesome, not wanting to verify, not wanting to cut off doubts, finding doubting troublesome—when concentrated to the extreme, approach the contours of the man from the underground. They differ only in degree, but the direction is the same. The "troublesome" within myself and the "untrustworthy" of the man from the underground are connected.

In modern daily life, the facilities of the underground are already integrated. Through SNS, we communicate only through text without seeing the other person's face. In remote work, we exchange deliverables without meeting colleagues directly for months. In payments, we swipe machines without exchanging a word with clerks. In conversations, we have AI draft our texts, diluting our own voices. And with wallets, we complete transactions with counterparts whose names and identities we do not know, without ever meeting their faces. These are accepted as the consequences of convenience. However, when we break down the components of convenience, what we find is a structure that allows us to avoid facing others directly. What the man from the underground did as a personal trait has now become a societal infrastructure.

Trustlessness is at the ideological forefront of this series of "undergroundization." The design that allows no one to be trusted elevates the extreme distrust of the man from the underground from a personal trait to a premise of infrastructure. It does not lead us out of the underground. It turns everyone's home into an underground. And once you start living there, it is comfortable. Designs that avoid facing people certainly reduce inconvenience. Because they reduce it, people continue to live there.

The man from the underground depicted by Dostoevsky was a patient. However, 160 years later, the facilities of the underground have become standard specifications, not hospital rooms. Trustlessness was an attempt to elevate that standardization to the level of economic infrastructure. The contours of the patient that have been read for generations have, before we knew it, become the blueprint for our living spaces.

Conclusion------Trust Does Not Disappear. It Just Changes Its Place

Trustlessness was an attempt to eliminate trust.

It did not disappear. Trust quietly moved from specific third parties with names to countless anonymous third parties without names. From bankers to node operators. From judges to core developers. From guarantors to auditing companies, hardware wallet manufacturers, and designers of economic incentives. The weight of trust remains. Only its place has changed.

And there is one more thing I have realized. The destination to which trust moves becomes thinner, broader, and more anonymous each time. The previous bankers had faces. Judges had names. Now, the countless node operators running the code have neither faces nor names. As long as they function as a collective, trust is maintained. When the collective collapses, trust collapses with it. Because we cannot reach the individual bearers, we cannot trace the responsibility when it collapses.

This is neither a bad thing nor a good thing. It is a new form of trust. As decentralization progresses, the faces of those who bear the trust become less visible. The less visible the faces are, the less we can see what happens when those who bear the trust leave.

The concept of trustlessness exists at the extreme of this decentralization. It posits a state where trust circulates in a place where no one's face is visible, and no one leaving can be seen. However, the moment this ideal is achieved, the face of someone who maintains that trust will inevitably reappear.

Trust does not disappear; it merely changes its location.

Tomorrow morning, I will take a 1,000 yen bill out at the convenience store. I will not check the watermark. I will withdraw cash from the ATM. I will not doubt the displayed balance. I will receive a message on Slack. I will not doubt that the person who contacted me is the account holder. I will get into the elevator. I will not measure the tension of the wires. Even if the bearer changes from a bank employee to a node operator, this morning will remain unchanged.

The man in the basement also wrote to the world from the basement. He believed, somewhere, that there was someone to read it. Those who created devices for no one to believe also wrote code, believing that someone would use it.

The very desire not to trust humans was, until the end, human. That desire painted the contours of humanity most vividly. The memoir of the man who wrote to the world from the basement continues to be read. This fact does not provide comfort.

Stuck, yet moving forward.

Series "Web3: Questions You Can No Longer Ask" Episode 8 / Planned for 10 episodes

Next Episode Preview

Next time, we will deal with meme coins. After questioning whether trust can be erased in this article, we will look at products that sold without any promises. We will see what humans are buying from another angle.

References

• Yuval Noah Harari, "Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind" (2011)
• Claude Lévi-Strauss, "The Savage Mind" (1962)
• Ludwig Wittgenstein, "Philosophical Investigations" (1953)
• Max Weber, "Economy and Society" (1922)
• Fyodor Dostoevsky, "Notes from Underground" (1864, translated by Haruko Yasuoka, Kobunsha Classic New Translation Library, 2007)
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